Effects of Human Footprint on Habitat Suitability

At the local scale, in areas where footprint occurs, birds show a mixed response to the four industrial sectors in Tolko’s Northern Operating Area. 

• Within forestry footprint, habitat suitability is improved for 57% of bird species. Some species, such as Lincoln’s Sparrow, are associated with early seral forests and do well in young harvest areas, while others live in open habitats like fields and wet areas. The bird species that respond most negatively are all associated with mature/old forest.
• Within energy footprint, habitat suitability decreased for 52% of bird species. 
• Urban/industrial and transportation footprint types reduce the habitat suitability for the majority of bird species (90% and 77%, respectively) compared to the native habitat they replace, and provide unsuitable habitat for a few species (-100% change). But there are some habitat generalists that thrive in these footprint types.
• In each footprint type there are several bird species that have very large per cent increases (>100%). These species are rare in native habitats but do well in footprint. 

At the regional scale, overall human footprint improves habitat suitability for 55% of bird species in Tolko’s Northern Operating Area.

• Forestry footprint has the greatest effects on regional habitat suitability for birds compared to other sectors in Tolko’s Northern Operating Area because it occupies the greatest area; effects ranged from a 17% loss in habitat (Western Tanager) to a 19% gain in habitat (Alder Flycatcher).
• The limited extent of the other sectors reduces their effects on the regional habitat suitability for birds, ranging from a 2% loss to a 4% gain in habitat.
• Forestry has somewhat stronger negative effects (>10%) on habitat suitability for several bird species that are associated with the older upland forests where this sector operates (e.g., Golden-crowned Kinglet at -16% and Brown Creeper at -15%). 
• The remaining sectors are spread across all habitat types, preventing disproportionate negative effects on any species. 
• Forestry footprint leads to large increases in the regional habitat suitability for several species of birds, including Alder Flycatcher (+19%) and Ruffed Grouse (+13%). These species either prefer recent harvest areas, or prefer open habitats and ground disturbances. 

At the local scale, in areas where human footprint occurs, habitat suitability is reduced for the majority of mammal species in Tolko’s Northern Operating Area. 

• Forestry footprint has a smaller effect on habitat suitability for mammals compared to other industrial sectors, and improves habitat suitability for 7 of 11 mammal species.
• Habitat is reduced for most mammal species in energy (6 species), urban/industrial (8 species) and transportation footprints (8 species).
• The species that lose habitat in all sector footprints are Marten and Fisher, which typically live in older forests, and Black Bear, which is often found in forests and along forest edges.
• Habitat suitability is improved in all footprint types for the Coyote, which is a generalist species, as well as for species that prefer early seral and shrubby habitats, including Canada Lynx, Snowshoe Hare, and Moose.

Most large mammals that the ABMI monitors with wildlife cameras are habitat generalists or use early seral habitat, and show relatively little response to scattered human footprint at the regional scale.

• Energy footprint has the greatest effects on mammals compared to other sectors in the Northern Operating Area, with changes in habitat suitability ranging from a 6% loss to a 5% gain in habitat. The largest response across footprint types was for Wolverine, with suitable habitat declining by 6% due to energy footprint.
• Forestry footprint has the next-strongest effects on mammal habitat suitability at the regional scale, with changes in habitat suitability ranging from a 2% loss to a 4% gain in habitat. 
• The regional effects on habitat suitability of urban/industrial and transportation footprints are very small. 

At the local scale, in areas where human footprint occurs, habitat suitability is reduced for 59% of soil mite species in Tolko’s Northern Operating Area. 

• Forestry footprint decreases habitat suitability for 56% of soil mite species. Some, such as Neogymnobates luteus, are strongly associated with old coniferous forest stands.
• Habitat suitability is also reduced for the majority of soil mite species in energy (62%) and transportation footprints (67%).
• Urban/industrial footprint reduces habitat suitability for all but six soil mite species. This footprint compacts soil and removes important habitat elements for soil mites, such as layers of leaf litter.

At the regional scale, overall human footprint lowers habitat suitability for 59% of soil mite species in Tolko’s Northern Operating Area.

• Forestry footprint results in the greatest changes in habitat suitability at the regional scale compared to other sectors because it occupies the greatest area; effects ranged from a 13% loss in habitat (Neogymnobates luteus) to a gain of 8% (Punctoribates palustris). 
• Some of the strongest negative effects of forestry footprint are found in species, such as Neogymnobates luteus (-13%) and Oribatella yukonensis (-7%), that are associated with the older upland forests where this sector operates.
• The limited extent of the other sectors reduces their effects on the regional habitat suitability for soil mites, with responses falling generally within -2% to 6% of intact reference conditions.

At the local scale, in areas where human footprint occurs, habitat suitability is reduced for 52% of the vascular plant species in Tolko’s Northern Operating Area.  

• Habitat suitability is improved for more than half of vascular plant species in forestry (51%), energy (58%) and transportation (53%) footprints.
• Urban/industrial footprint has the largest overall effect, with habitat suitability decreasing for 80% of vascular plant species.
• In each footprint type there are several vascular plant species that have very large percent increases (>100%) in habitat suitability. Many of these species are pioneer species—species that colonize new or recently disturbed environments—that do well in human footprint.

At the regional scale, overall human footprint lowers habitat suitability for 52% of vascular plant species in Tolko’s Northern Operating Area.

• Forestry footprint has the greatest effects on regional habitat suitability for vascular plants compared to other sectors in the Northern Operating Area because it occupies the greatest area; effects range from a 17% loss in habitat (Heart-Leaved Twayblade) to a 38% gain (Hay Sedge).
• The limited extent of the other sectors reduces their effects on the regional habitat suitability for vascular plants, with responses generally falling within -3% to 6% of intact reference conditions. A few species showed increases outside of this range under both energy and transportation footprints.
• Forestry has somewhat stronger negative effects (>10%) on the regional habitat suitability for several vascular plant species (e.g., Heart-leaved Twayblade at -17% and Tall Larkspur at -12%). These species are associated with the older upland forests where this sector operates. 
• Forestry produces large increases in the regional habitat suitability for several species of vascular plants, such as Hay Sedge (38%). These species either prefer recent harvest areas, or prefer open habitats and ground disturbances.

At the local scale, in areas where human footprint occurs, habitat suitability is reduced for 72% of the moss species in Tolko’s Northern Operating Area. 

• In forestry footprint, habitat suitability is reduced for 69% of moss species. Many mosses are associated with habitat elements that are most abundant in old forests, such as downed wood and moist, shaded habitat.
• Habitat suitability decreases for 75% and 80% of moss species in energy and transportation footprints, respectively.
• Urban/industrial footprint reduces habitat suitability for 96% of moss species. Many species simply cannot live in this footprint type. 
• One species, Bonfire Moss, shows a strong increase in habitat suitability in all sectors. Bonfire Moss is not strongly associated with forest stands, and responds positively to some human footprint types.

At the regional scale, overall human footprint lowers habitat suitability for 72% of moss species in Tolko’s Northern Operating Area.

• Forestry footprint has the greatest effects on regional habitat suitability for mosses compared to other sectors in the Northern Operating Area because it occupies the greatest area; effects range from a 35% loss in habitat (Cushion Moss) to a 26% gain (Bonfire Moss).
• The limited extent of the other sectors reduces their effects on the regional habitat suitability for mosses, with most responses falling within ±2% of intact reference conditions. 
• Forestry has somewhat stronger negative effects on the regional habitat suitability for several moss species—for example, Cushion Moss, at -35%—that are associated with the older upland forests where this sector operates. 

At the local scale, in areas where human footprint occurs, habitat suitability is reduced for 78% of lichen species in Tolko’s Northern Operating Area. 

• Habitat suitability is reduced for the majority of lichen species in forestry (77%), energy (94%), and transportation footprints (94%). Lichens are sensitive to changes in microclimate (local temperature, humidity) and amount of ambient rain and dust, all of which can be affected by human footprint.
• Urban/industrial footprint reduces habitat suitability for all lichen species by at least 43%. Many species simply cannot live in this footprint type. 
• Habitat suitability increases in human footprint for a few lichen species, mainly in forest harvest areas. 

At the regional scale, overall human footprint lowers habitat suitability for 78% of lichen species in Tolko’s Northern Operating Area.

• Forestry footprint has the greatest effects on regional habitat suitability for lichens compared to other sectors in the Northern Operating Area because it occupies the greatest area; effects range from a 24% loss in habitat (Angel’s Hair) to a 10% gain (Peltigera didactyla grp.).
• The limited extent of the other sectors reduces their effects on the regional habitat suitability for lichens, with all responses falling within ±2% of intact reference conditions.
• Several lichen species are associated with the older upland forests where forestry operates. Habitat suitability for these species is predicted to decrease by at least 15% at the regional scale due to forestry footprint. For example, Angel's Hair is expected to decline by 24% and Milky-skin Centipede Lichen by 15%.